PkCeraN

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Phase I Variables (polity-based)

General variables

♠ RA ♣ Will Farrell; Robert Harding; Alice Williams; Enrico Cioni ♥

♠ Original name ♣ Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic ♥

♠ Alternative names ♣ Mehrgarh II A; Mehrgarh IIB ♥

♠ Peak Date ♣ unknown ♥


Temporal bounds

♠ Duration ♣ 5500-4000 BCE ♥

♠ Degree of centralization ♣ quasi-polity ♥ With limited archaeological (and no literary) evidence, it is not clear what sort of polity (or polities) were present at this time [1]. However, it is much more likely that we are dealing with a quasi-polity rather than a polity, and that there was nothing resembling a state at this time[2].

♠ Supra-polity relations ♣ none ♥ With limited archaeological (and no literary) evidence, it is not clear what sort of polity (or polities) were present at this time. [3] However, it is much more likely that we are dealing with a quasi-polity rather than a polity, and that there was nothing resembling a state at this time[4].

Supra-cultural relations

♠ preceding (quasi)polity ♣ Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic ♥
♠ relationship to preceding (quasi)polity ♣ continuity ♥
♠ succeeding (quasi)polity ♣ Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic ♥
♠ Supracultural entity ♣ ♥
♠ scale of supra-cultural interaction ♣ ♥ km squared.

♠ Capital ♣ ♥ Mehrgarh is not a capital. It is however both the best studied and archaeologically richest site.

♠ Language ♣ unknown ♥

General Description

The Kachi Plain, in modern-day Pakistan, is hemmed in on two of its three sides by the mountains of Baluchistan, while its southeastern side opens up to the Indus Valley.[5] The earliest evidence for agriculture here was found in Mehrgarh and dates to 7000 BCE. By 5500, the people of Mehrgarh had begun to rely more on bovine and ovicaprine pastoralism for their meat, as opposed to hunting. Starting from around this time, there is also an increase in the number of known farming settlements in the region, most notably Kili Ghul Mohammad, Anjira, Siah Damb, and Rana Gundai. There is evidence for an increased range of craft activities and the first granaries appeared in Mehrgarh, as well as, perhaps, small-scale irrigation.[6]

Population and political organization

It is not possible to give an accurate estimate of the region's population at this time,[7] and the size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River.[8] Similarly, the literature does not provide many clues as to the political organization of Mehrgarh or any other site in the region during the period, although the appearance of granaries at Mehrgarh may suggest increasing social complexity.[9]

Social Complexity variables

♠ RA ♣ Will Farrell; Robert Harding; Alice Williams; Enrico Cioni ♥

Social Scale

♠ Polity territory ♣ ♥ in squared kilometers. Coded as not applicable: the living area is less than 1 km2 and the database in its current configuration does not accept decimal figures.

Mehrgarh overall is made up of 6 mounds, spread over an area of 500 acres. They were, however, not all occupied at the same time. [10]. The total number of sites known is 33.[11] Mehrgarh I - II inter-regional styles of wheel-made pottery [12]: the living area grew from 2ha to 12 ha.

♠ Polity Population ♣ suspected unknown ♥ It is not possible to make an accurate estimate.[13]

♠ Population of the largest settlement ♣ [400-600] ♥ The size of occupied Mehrgarh is uncertain, as the population shifted over time and part of the site has been cut away by the Bolan River.[14]. A. Ceccarelli [15] confirms that it is not easy to estimate the population of Mehrgarh at this time because it is not clear how much of the site was inhabited at any given moment. As for burial data, "we do not yet know to what degree the excavated area may represent the whole graveyard and to what extent the burials reflect the actualliving population." [16] However, "The total area is likely ta be at least twelve hectares, however, including that which has been washed away by the Balan River. Such an expanse of cultural remains is difficult ta interpret until it is made clear that these deposits, in fact, do not represent the remains a permanent senlement. Only in the central part the senlement are superimposed architectural remains visible in the section cut by the Balan River and in the sections exposed in the soundings."[17] If we assume that between 4 and 12 hectares were occupied at any one time, and that there were about 50 inhabitants per hectare, then perhaps the site was inhabited by between 400 and 600 inhabitants.

Hierarchical Complexity

♠ Settlement hierarchy ♣[1-2] ♥ levels. Territorial polities cannot be assumed to have existed at this point. It is also worth noting that it is not clear how much of the site Mehgarh was inhabited at any one time[18].

1. ?Mehrgarh
2. ?Villages

♠ Administrative levels ♣ 1 ♥ levels. “Agriculture and herding were well established by the beginning of Stage Two and some subsistence surpluses were possible. The excavators think that this does not imply that we can reconstruct the social stratigraphy that would be associated with an archaic state, but some internal differentiation of the Stage Two society is possible, in view of the sophistication of craft production documented at Mehrgarh.”[19]

♠ Religious levels ♣ 1 ♥ levels. Clay figurines have been found but there is no evidence for a religious hierarchy at Mehrgarh.[20] “At Mehrgarh human figurines are miniature works of art in clay. The earliest human figurines in Periods I are seated or standing and schematically represented. They were formed from a single piece of clay, with minimal representation of arms and legs; a few were adorned with necklaces and belts applied to the basic figure. Some were decorated with red ochre. In general, they range in size from 1.5 to 10 centimeters. Many of the figurines have feminine characteristics - realistic breasts; one standing figure bears the hint of genitalia and is obviously male (Jarrige 2005: 30-31). Catherine Jarrige (1991, 2005) conducted extensive study of the Mehrgarh figurines. As she points out, their frequent presence in trash deposits gives the impression they were discarded haphazardly. However, there are several clues that may lead to an understanding of their significance to the people at Mehrgarh. One is reflected in the locations of trash deposits. Since many of the deposits are found in household areas, they may represent a domestic cult, perhaps associated with “representations of tutelary deities for the family, the clan or a relevant profession” (Jarrige 1991: 92). Another possibility is their use for magical practices, as is frequently the case in agrarian societies (Jarrige 1991: 92). The recent discovery of one of the pierced human figurines in a grave from Period I, in which the figurine was held to the dead woman’s face in clasped hands, may indicate something about the role she played in society (Jarrige 2005: 34).

♠ Military levels ♣ 1 ♥ levels. Kenoyer writes that there is no evidence of the existence of an army even during the period 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE.[21]

Professions

♠ Professional military officers ♣ inferred absent ♥ Inferred from Jonathan Kenoyer's claim that there is no evidence of the existence of an army even during the period 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE.[22].

♠ Professional soldiers ♣ inferred absent ♥ Inferred from Jonathan Kenoyer's claim that there is no evidence of the existence of an army even during the period 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE.[23].

♠ Professional priesthood ♣ inferred absent ♥ Clay figurines have been found but there is no evidence for a professional priesthood at Mehrgarh. [24].

Bureaucracy characteristics

♠ Full-time bureaucrats ♣ absent ♥ No evidence for employment specialization characteristic of a developed urban society. Agricultural and herding would be typical occupations with "some internal differentiation ... in view of the sophistication of craft production documented at Mehrgarh.”[25]

♠ Examination system ♣ absent ♥

♠ Merit promotion ♣ absent ♥ No evidence for employment specialization characteristic of a developed urban society. Agricultural and herding would be typical occupations with "some internal differentiation ... in view of the sophistication of craft production documented at Mehrgarh.”[26]

♠ Specialized government buildings ♣ absent ♥ No evidence for employment specialization characteristic of a developed urban society. Agricultural and herding would be typical occupations with "some internal differentiation ... in view of the sophistication of craft production documented at Mehrgarh.”[27]

Law

♠ Formal legal code ♣ absent ♥

♠ Judges ♣ absent ♥ No evidence for employment specialization characteristic of a developed urban society. Agricultural and herding would be typical occupations with "some internal differentiation ... in view of the sophistication of craft production documented at Mehrgarh.”[28]

♠ Courts ♣ absent ♥ No evidence for employment specialization characteristic of a developed urban society. Agricultural and herding would be typical occupations with "some internal differentiation ... in view of the sophistication of craft production documented at Mehrgarh.”[29]

♠ Professional Lawyers ♣ absent ♥ No evidence for employment specialization characteristic of a developed urban society. Agricultural and herding would be typical occupations with "some internal differentiation ... in view of the sophistication of craft production documented at Mehrgarh.”[30]

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

♠ irrigation systems ♣ {present; absent} ♥ According to Ahmed, the variety of barley used "could be grown only in the irrigated fields, it implies and improved method of farming in the Kachi plains."[31] However, according to Akhund and Haroon, evidence for irrigation does not precede the Chalcolithic[32].
♠ drinking water supply systems ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ markets ♣ inferred present ♥ It's possible that Mehrgarh itself was a trading emporium "where people from the uplands gathered on a seasonal basis" [33] Evidence, for example, of trade in seashell ornaments[34]
♠ food storage sites ♣ inferred present ♥ Period II: "Compartmented buildings on hard clay foundations suggest systemic storage of grains', the seeds of barley (Hordeum sphaeroccoccum) having been found in some of the cells." [35]

Transport infrastructure

♠ Roads ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Bridges ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Canals ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Ports ♣ absent ♥ Inland site would not have had a port.

Special purpose sites

♠ Mines or quarries ♣ inferred present ♥ Stone quarries in the hills near the site of Nal (Naal). Period I and II at Damb Sadaat. Period IV at Anjira and Siah Damb. [36] Nal is just outside this NGA region but we can infer that the inhabitants of Mehrgarh also quarried stone e.g. for tools.

Information

Writing System

♠ Mnemonic devices ♣ suspected unknown ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [37]
♠ Nonwritten records ♣ suspected unknown ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [38]
♠ Written records ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [39]
♠ Script ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [40]
♠ Non-phonetic writing ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [41]
♠ Phonetic alphabetic writing ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [42]

Kinds of Written Documents

♠ Lists, tables, and classifications ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [43]
♠ Calendar ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [44]
♠ Sacred Texts ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [45]
♠ Religious literature ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [46]
♠ Practical literature ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [47]
♠ History ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [48]
♠ Philosophy ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [49]
♠ Scientific literature ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [50]
♠ Fiction ♣ absent ♥ Possehl states that there was no writing before the urban phase in the Indus valley. [51]


Money

♠ Articles ♣ ♥
♠ Tokens ♣ inferred present ♥ Presumed present for the trade of foreign materials (including lapis lazuli, calcite and steatite for bead production).[52]
♠ Precious metals ♣ suspected unknown ♥ Copper was present from Mehrgarh III[53], but may not have been used as 'money'.
♠ Foreign coins ♣ absent ♥ No coins have been found in the archaeological record at Mehrgarh.[54]
♠ Indigenous coins ♣ absent ♥ No coins have been found in the archaeological record at Mehrgarh.[55]
♠ Paper currency ♣ absent ♥ No evidence of paper currency has been found in the archaeological record at Mehrgarh.[56]

Postal System

♠ Couriers ♣ inferred absent ♥ Worth noting that materials were transported over long distances to Mehrgarh(including lapis lazuli[57]), but it is unknown who transported them.
♠ Postal stations ♣ absent ♥ There are no archaeological remains which can be interpreted as postal stations at Mehrgarh, and are therefore presumed absent.[58] No evidence for social structure that could have organized a postal system nor one what would have required one.
♠ General postal service ♣ absent ♥ There are no archaeological remains which can be interpreted as postal stations at Mehrgarh, and are therefore presumed absent.[59] No evidence for social structure that could have organized a postal system nor one what would have required one.

Warfare variables

♠ RA ♣ Will Farrell; Alice Williams ♥

Military Technologies

Military use of Metals

♠ Copper ♣ ♥
♠ Bronze ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [60].
♠ Iron ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as occurred later [61].
♠ Steel ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as occurred later [62].

Projectiles

♠ Javelins ♣ absent ♥ Not mentioned in detailed descriptions/lists of finds from Mehrgarh. "War technology is not well represented".[63] Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [64]
♠ Atlatl ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [65]
♠ Slings ♣ absent ♥ Not mentioned in detailed descriptions/lists of finds from Mehrgarh. "War technology is not well represented".[66] Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [67]
♠ Self bow ♣ absent ♥ Not mentioned in detailed descriptions/lists of finds from Mehrgarh. "War technology is not well represented".[68] Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [69]
♠ Composite bow ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as occurred later [70]
♠ Crossbow ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as occurred later [71]
♠ Tension siege engines ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as occurred later [72]
♠ Sling siege engines ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as occurred later [73]
♠ Gunpowder siege artillery ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as occurred later [74]
♠ Handheld firearms ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as occurred later [75]

Handheld weapons

♠ War clubs ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [76]
♠ Battle axes ♣ absent ♥ Not mentioned in detailed descriptions/lists of finds from Mehrgarh. "War technology is not well represented".[77] Ground stone axe found in burial [78] - was this a battle axe? In one exceptional burial, a polished stone axe and three flint cores were placed in a basket and lay near the skull of the deceased. Sixteen blades from the same core were set in parallel rows along the spinal column [79]
♠ Daggers ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [80]
♠ Swords ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [81]
♠ Spears ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [82]
♠ Polearms ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [83]

Animals used in warfare

♠ Dogs ♣ absent ♥ Inferred due to lack of evidence of warfare [84]
♠ Donkeys ♣ absent ♥ Inferred due to lack of evidence of warfare [85]
♠ Horses ♣ absent ♥ Inferred due to lack of evidence of warfare [86]
♠ Camels ♣ absent ♥ Inferred due to lack of evidence of warfare [87]
♠ Elephants ♣ absent ♥ Inferred due to lack of evidence of warfare [88]

Armor

♠ Wood, bark, etc ♣ suspected unknown ♥ Evidence of armor made from organic materials has not been recovered from Mehrgarh.
♠ Leather, cloth ♣ suspected unknown ♥ Evidence of armor made from organic materials has not been recovered from Mehrgarh.
♠ Shields ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [89]
♠ Helmets ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [90]
♠ Breastplates ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [91]
♠ Limb protection ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [92]
♠ Chainmail ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [93]
♠ Scaled armor ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [94]
♠ Laminar armor ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [95]
♠ Plate armor ♣ absent ♥ Only flint, bone and copper tools tools have been found at Mehrgarh [96]

Naval technology

♠ Small vessels (canoes, etc) ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as Mehrgarh is landlocked.
♠ Merchant ships pressed into service ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as Mehrgarh is landlocked.
♠ Specialized military vessels ♣ absent ♥ Inferred as Mehrgarh is landlocked.

Fortifications

♠ Settlements in a defensive position ♣ inferred absent ♥ Inferred absent from lack of evidence of significant warfare.
♠ Wooden palisades ♣ absent ♥ Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [97]. The data for fortifications is inferred. Possehl states that before the Urban phase (i.e. 2600 BCE) for only 3 sites out of 463 Pre-Urban sites the archaeological evidence could potentially be interpreted as having some sort of substantial circumvallation. [98].
♠ Earth ramparts ♣ absent ♥ Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [99].
♠ Ditch ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Moat ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Stone walls (non-mortared) ♣ absent ♥ Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [100].
♠ Stone walls (mortared) ♣ absent ♥ Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [101].
♠ Fortified camps ♣ absent ♥ Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [102].
♠ Complex fortifications ♣ absent ♥ Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [103].
♠ Long walls ♣ 0 ♥ Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [104].
♠ Modern fortifications ♣ absent ♥ Inferred lack of substantial circumvallation. [105].


Phase II Variables (polity-based)

Institutional Variables

♠ RA ♣ Enrico Cioni ♥

Limits on Power of the Chief Executive

These codes refer to an explicit or defined right for some group to constrain the activity of the executive in some way, typically through a legal code, but other ways are imaginable (explain in paragraph if other mechanisms found). When coding ‘present’ for each of the below codes, provide explanation and give examples of the constraints being used, or note that the constraints were formalized but are no known instances of its use in practice.

Power distributed

♠ Constraint on executive by government ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Constraint on executive by non-government ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Impeachment ♣ suspected unknown ♥

Social Mobility

Status

Elite status

♠ elite status is hereditary ♣ unknown ♥

Religion and Normative Ideology

We are interested here in any systems of thought and behavior that can influence people's actions, which we term a Normative Ideology. Normative ideologies are thought-systems concerned with the correct behavior of people, governments/leaders, and other groups (and particularly the relationships between these groups).

Mainly, this will be a religious or ritual system. As usual, when we mention Religious or Ritual System our focus is on the 'official cult', defined the same way as in the Rituals section:

With the official cult we refer to the set of collective religious practices that are most closely associated with legitimation of the power structure (including elites, if any).

However, Normative Ideologies are not restricted to religious/ritual systems. They include other thought systems, such as philosophy or anything that prescribes a particular pattern of behaviour. An example is classical Greek philosophy, such as the works of Plato and Aristotle, who were concerned with correct or moral behaviour and whose thoughts influenced the actual practice of several societies (the empire of Alexander the Great, notably).

♠ RA ♣ Enrico Cioni ♥

Deification of Rulers

♠ Rulers are legitimated by gods ♣ ♥

♠ Rulers are gods ♣ ♥ .

Normative Ideological Aspects of Equity and Prosociality

♠ Ideological reinforcement of equality ♣ ♥

♠ Ideological thought equates rulers and commoners ♣ ♥
♠ Ideological thought equates elites and commoners ♣ ♥

♠ Ideology reinforces prosociality ♣ ♥

♠ production of public goods ♣ ♥

Moralizing Supernatural Powers

♠ Moral concern is primary ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement is certain ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing norms are broad ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement is targeted ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement of rulers ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing religion adopted by elites ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing religion adopted by commoners ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement in afterlife ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement in this life ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement is agentic ♣ unknown ♥

These data were reviewed by expert advisors and consultants. For a detailed description of these data, refer to the relevant Analytic Narratives, reference tables, and acknowledgements page. [106] [107] [108]

References

  1. ↑ Rita Wright: The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy and Society; Cambridge: CUP, 2010, pp. 79-105
  2. ↑ A. Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017
  3. ↑ Rita Wright: The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy and Society; Cambridge: CUP, 2010, pp. 79-105
  4. ↑ A. Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017
  5. ↑ (Jarrige & Enault 1976, 29) Jarrige, Jean-François, and Jean-François Enault. 1976. “Fouilles de Pirak - Baluchistan.” Arts Asiatiques 32 (1): 29-70. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/Q32UJUPX.
  6. ↑ (McIntosh 2008, 57-61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8.
  7. ↑ (Possehl 1999, 472) Possehl, Gregory L. 1999. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/IWNUD7IH.
  8. ↑ (Jarrige 2013, 135-154) Jarrige, J.-F. 2013. Mehrgarh Neolithic. Paris: Éditions de Boccard. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/4MKZA34B.
  9. ↑ (McIntosh 2008, 61) McIntosh, Jane. 2008. The Ancient Indus Valley. Santa Barbara; Denver; Oxford: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/5P92SHE8.
  10. ↑ Avari, Burjor, India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from C. 7000 BC to AD 1200 (London: Routledge, 2007),p.33
  11. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 32
  12. ↑ (Ahmed 2014, 322)
  13. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. Indus Age: The Beginnings. New Delhi, 1999, p.472
  14. ↑ Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.
  15. ↑ Alessandro Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017
  16. ↑ (Sellier 1995: 430) Pascal Sellier. 1995. 'Physical Anthropology' in Mehrgarh, edited by Catherine Jarrige, Jean-Francois Jarrige, Richard H. Meadow, and Gonzague Quivron. Karachi: Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh ; in collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  17. ↑ (Jarrige 1995: 366) Catherine Jarrige, Jean-Francois Jarrige, Richard H. Meadow, and Gonzague Quivron. 1995. Mehrgarh. Karachi: Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh ; in collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  18. ↑ Alessandro Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017
  19. ↑ Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.
  20. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  21. ↑ Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. 'Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities', Scientific American, vol. 15, no. 1, 2005, p. 29.
  22. ↑ Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. 'Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities', Scientific American, vol. 15, no. 1, 2005, p. 29.
  23. ↑ Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. 'Uncovering the keys to the Lost Indus Cities', Scientific American, vol. 15, no. 1, 2005, p. 29.
  24. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  25. ↑ Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.
  26. ↑ Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.
  27. ↑ Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.
  28. ↑ Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.
  29. ↑ Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.
  30. ↑ Agrawal, D. P. (2007) The Indus Civilization: An interdisciplinary perspective. Aryan Books International: New Delhi.
  31. ↑ (Ahmed 2014, 321)
  32. ↑ (Akhund and Haroon 1995: XII) Hameed Akhun and Hameed Haroon. 1995. 'Preface' in Mehrgarh, edited by Catherine Jarrige, Jean-Francois Jarrige, Richard H. Meadow, and Gonzague Quivron. Karachi: Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh ; in collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  33. ↑ (Ahmed 2014, 323 citing: ?)
  34. ↑ (Kenoyer 1995: 566-582) Jonathan Mark Kenoyer. 1995. 'Shell trade and shell working during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic at Mehrgarh, Pakistan' in Mehrgarh, edited by Catherine Jarrige, Jean-Francois Jarrige, Richard H. Meadow, and Gonzague Quivron. Karachi: Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh ; in collaboration with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
  35. ↑ (Ahmed 2014, 321-322)
  36. ↑ (Singh 2008, 107-108)
  37. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  38. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  39. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  40. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  41. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  42. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  43. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  44. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  45. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  46. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  47. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  48. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  49. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  50. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  51. ↑ Gregory L. Possehl. The Indus Civilization. A Contemporary Perspective. Walnut Creek, Altamira, 2002, p. 51.
  52. ↑ Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154. p145
  53. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  54. ↑ Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.
  55. ↑ Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.
  56. ↑ Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.
  57. ↑ Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.
  58. ↑ Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.
  59. ↑ Jarrige, J. F. (2008). Mehrgarh neolithic. Pragdhara, 18, 135-154.
  60. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
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  62. ↑ ( Darvill, Timothy. "steel." In The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology. : Oxford University Press, 2008. )
  63. ↑ (Kenoyer 1991: 347) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/A7DS8UKX/q/kenoyer.
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  65. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  66. ↑ (Kenoyer 1991: 347) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/A7DS8UKX/q/kenoyer.
  67. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  68. ↑ (Kenoyer 1991: 347) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/A7DS8UKX/q/kenoyer.
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  70. ↑ ( DeVries, Kelly. "bow." In The Oxford Companion to Military History. : Oxford University Press, 2001. ).
  71. ↑ ( DeVries, Kelly. "crossbow." In The Oxford Companion to Military History. : Oxford University Press, 2001. ).
  72. ↑ ( DeVries, Kelly. "siege engines." In The Oxford Companion to Military History. : Oxford University Press, 2001. ).
  73. ↑ ( DeVries, Kelly. "siege engines." In The Oxford Companion to Military History. : Oxford University Press, 2001. ).
  74. ↑ ( DeVries, Kelly. "cannon" In The Oxford Companion to Military History. : Oxford University Press, 2001. ).
  75. ↑ ( DeVries, Kelly. "matchlock." In The Oxford Companion to Military History. : Oxford University Press, 2001. ).
  76. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  77. ↑ (Kenoyer 1991: 347) Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/A7DS8UKX/q/kenoyer.
  78. ↑ (Ahmed 2014, p. 316)
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  80. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  81. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  82. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  83. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  84. ↑ (Kenoyer 1991, p. 347)
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  86. ↑ (Kenoyer 1991, p. 347)
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  89. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  90. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  91. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  92. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  93. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  94. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  95. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
  96. ↑ Petrie, C. A. (in press) Chapter 11, Case Study: Mehrgarh. In, Barker, G and Goucher, C (eds.) Cambridge World History, Volume 2: A World with Agriculture, 12,000 BCE - 500 CE. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
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  105. ↑ (Gregory L. Possehl. 'Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization', Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 19. (1990), p. 271)
  106. ↑ http://seshatdatabank.info/databrowser/moralizing-supernatural-punishment-acknowledgements.html
  107. ↑ http://seshatdatabank.info/databrowser/moralizing-supernatural-punishment-narratives.html
  108. ↑ http://seshatdatabank.info/databrowser/moralizing-supernatural-punishment-nga_tables.html
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