MlJeJe1

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Phase I Variables (polity-based)

General variables

♠ RA ♣ Edward A L Turner; Enrico Cioni ♥ General description written by EC.

♠ Original name ♣ Jenne-jeno I ♥

♠ Alternative names ♣ Jenne-jeno Phase I; Djoboro; Do-Dojobor; Zoboro; Old Jenne; Djenne-jeno ♥ Djoboro[1], Do-Dojobor and Zoboro. [2] Jenne-jeno ("Old Jenne"; Djenne-jeno) [3]

♠ Peak Date ♣ 49 CE ♥ 50 CE based on linear development progression at this low level of complexity.

"Jenne-jeno's floruit: 450-1100 C.E."[4]

Temporal bounds

♠ Duration ♣ 250 BCE - 49 CE ♥

1977 excavation habitation 250 BCE to at least 12th century CE "Gradual abandonment of the site was probably in progress soon thereafter" 1400 CE reasonable estimate for abandonment, but could be as early as 1200 CE. [5]

Earliest phase 250 BCE - 50 CE. [6]

"It appears that permanent settlement first became possible in the upper Inland Niger Delta in about the third century B.C.E. Prior to that time, the flood regime of the Niger was apparently much more active, meaning that the annual floodwaters rose higher and perhaps stayed longer than they do today, such that there was no high land that regularly escaped inundation. Under these wetter circumstances, diseases carried by insects, especially tsetse fly, would have discouraged occupation. Between 200 B.C.E. and 100 C.E., the Sahel experienced significant dry episodes, that were part of the general drying trend seriously underway since 1000 B.C.E. Prior to that time, significant numbers of herders and farmers lived in what is today the southern Sahara desert, where they raised cattle, sheep and goat, grew millet, hunted, and fished in an environment of shallow lakes and grassy plains." [7]

♠ Degree of centralization ♣ quasi-polity ♥

There is no evidence of a hierarchical social system and centralized control[8]

Jenne-jeno was "a large, complex, but non-coercive urban settlement."[9] "the demands of specialization pushed groups apart while the requirements of a generalized economy pulled them together ... created a dynamism that ensured growth and the establishment of urban settlements. And they were non-coercive settlements. Groups congregated by choice. This is an instance of transformation from a rural to an urban society that did not establish a hierarchical society and coercive centralized control... The process in the delta and at Jenne-jeno in particular, was one of 'complexification' rather than centralization."[10]

♠ Supra-polity relations ♣ ♥ unknown

Supra-cultural relations

♠ preceding (quasi)polity ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ relationship to preceding (quasi)polity ♣ suspected unknown ♥ "Permanent settlement in the delta, resulting in the formation of tells (large mounds consisting of the accumulated remains of ancient settlements), was initiated by people who entered the region during the last 500 years BC."[11]
♠ succeeding (quasi)polity ♣ Jenne-jeno II ♥
♠ Supracultural entity ♣ Sahel Tell Culture ♥
♠ scale of supra-cultural interaction ♣ [1,500,000-2,500,000] ♥ km squared. "Permanent settlement in the delta, resulting in the formation of tells (large mounds consisting of the accumulated remains of ancient settlements), was initiated by people who entered the region during the last 500 years BC. They made pottery similar to that found at earlier sites along the southern fringe of the Sahara, suggesting that the immigrants were part of a southward movement of herders, fishermen, and cultivators that began with the accelerating desiccation of the Sahara and Sahel regions around 2000 BC."[12]

♠ Capital ♣ suspected unknown ♥


♠ Language ♣ suspected unknown ♥

General Description

The archaeological site of Jenne-jeno (or Djenné-djenno) is a mound located in the Niger Inland Delta, a region of West Africa just south of the Sahara and part of modern-day Mali, characterized by lakes and floodplains. It was continuously inhabited between 250 BCE and 1400 CE. 'Jenne-jeno I' refers to the period of earliest occupation, from 250 BCE to 50 CE. During this time, the site's inhabitants fished, gathered wild plants, hunted, and cultivated rice (as well as millet and sorghum). They also made and used pottery, and smelted, smithed and used iron, though they probably imported the raw material for the latter from far afield.[13]

Population and political organization

There does not seem to be enough data to reconstruct Jenne-jeno's political or social organization at this time, but even for later periods, there is a lack of archaeological evidence for 'coercive' centralized control or the development of hierarchical social structures.[14] It is also unclear how many people were living at Jenne-jeno or at the surrounding sites. However, one of the site's excavators, Roderick McIntosh, does say that the founding population was probably not inconsiderable, and expanded rapidly.[15]

Social Complexity variables

♠ RA ♣ Edward A L Turner ♥

Social Scale

♠ Polity territory ♣ [5-10] ♥ in squared kilometers

[5-10] km is my estimate for a small agricultural village and its hinderland.

At this early stage there may have been small agricultural villages. "The original settlement appears to have occurred on a small patch of relatively high ground, and was probably restricted to a few circular huts of straw coated with mud daub."[16]

Later, the quasi-polity would acquire a 1,100 square kilometer hinterland[17] while "over 60 archaeological sites rise from the floodplain within a 4 kilometer radius of the modern town".[18] This gives us an upper limit and estimate of area magnitude.


♠ Polity Population ♣ [200-300] ♥ People.

At this time 500,000-1,000,000 across the Sahel states (Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad) but at a very low level of organization with many pastoralists. If a Sahel population of 750,000 all lived in villages and there were 150 per village there would be 5000 villages. This seems too much. Urbanism at this time was unlikely the main form of living. If, say, 10% of the Sahel population lived in villages 75,000 population at 150 per village would give us 500 nascent settlements. This seems a more reasonable figure. However, the actual size of villages would have ranged.

We could perhaps code [200-300] as an upper maximum for a quasi-polity that consisted of more than one village settlement.


"Before the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry the population of the area of the present-day Sahel states is unlikely to have exceeded 50,000: once pastoralism and agriculture had become well-established the population can hardly have been less than half a million. The chronology of the transition is as yet totally obscure, but there is no reason to postulate anything above the 50,000 line before 3000 BC or place the achievement of the half million later than 1000 BC. From this latter point a low rate of increase is all that is needed to bring the total to 1m by AD 1 and 2m by AD 1000." [19]


♠ Population of the largest settlement ♣ [100-150] ♥ Inhabitants. During phase two settlement size possibly exceeded 10 hectares[20] which would be a maximum 2000 people at a conversion of 200 per hectare. However, this polity sheet is phase one.


Sahel states = Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad. "Before the introduction of agriculture and animal husbandry the population of the area of the present-day Sahel states is unlikely to have exceeded 50,000: once pastoralism and agriculture had become well-established the population can hardly have been less than half a million. The chronology of the transition is as yet totally obscure, but there is no reason to postulate anything above the 50,000 line before 3000 BC or place the achievement of the half million later than 1000 BC. From this latter point a low rate of increase is all that is needed to bring the total to 1m by AD 1 and 2m by AD 1000." [21]

Estimate hectare size phase I:

unknown

Estimate hectare size phase II:

settlement size "possibly exceeding 10 hectares" [22]
1977 archaeological investigation established the 3rd century BCE date and showed that by the eighth-ninth century it had become "an urban center of considerable proportions" [23]

Estimated hectare size early phase III:

"by 450 C.E., the settlement had expanded to at least 25 hectares (over 60 acres)."[24]

Estimate size at height phase III/phase IV:

"The total surface area of Jenne-jeno and its satellites was 69 hectares; the total population when most densely occupied approached 27,000."[25]
"At its most densely populated (around AD 800) Jenne-jeno housed up to 27,000 people.[26]
33 hectares. 9 hectare Hambarketolo connects to Jenne-jeno via an earthern dike. [27] this maximum area extent by 900-1000 CE[28]
"During this time, the settlement continued to grow, reaching its maximum area of 33 hectares by 850 C.E. We know that this is so because sherds of the distinctive painted pottery that was produced at Jenne-jeno only between 450-850 C.E. are present in all our excavation units, even those near the edge of the mound. And we find them at the neighboring mound of Hambarketolo, too, suggesting that these two connected sites totaling 41 hectares (100 acres) functioned as part of a single town complex (Pl. 4). [29]

Hierarchical Complexity

♠ Settlement hierarchy ♣ 1 ♥ levels.

1. Small village.

"The original settlement appears to have occurred on a small patch of relatively high ground, and was probably restricted to a few circular huts of straw coated with mud daub."[30]
"people were kept apart by virtue of their occupations and their ethnic identities. Sedentary communities, though clustered were dispersed."[31]
"Sudanic societies were built on small agricultural villages or herding communities, sometimes but not always integrated into larger tribal and linguistic groups." [32]


♠ Administrative levels ♣ 1 ♥ levels.

There is no evidence of a hierarchical social system[33] Jenne-jeno was "a large, complex, but non-coercive urban settlement."[34] "the demands of specialization pushed groups apart while the requirements of a generalized economy pulled them together ... created a dynamism that ensured growth and the establishment of urban settlements. And they were non-coercive settlements. Groups congregated by choice. This is an instance of transformation from a rural to an urban society that did not establish a hierarchical society and coercive centralized control... The process in the delta and at Jenne-jeno in particular, was one of 'complexification' rather than centralization."[35]

Clan

(General reference for West African states) "the basic social and political unit appears in the past to have been the small local group, bound together by ties of kinship. When a number of groups came together they formed a clan. The heads of local clans were usually responsible for certain religious rites connected with the land." [36]

Kinship group

(General reference for West African states) "the basic social and political unit appears in the past to have been the small local group, bound together by ties of kinship. When a number of groups came together they formed a clan. The heads of local clans were usually responsible for certain religious rites connected with the land." [37]


In West Africa "Early states were simple in their government ... Some were ruled by a single chief or king and his counsellors. Others were governed by a council of chiefs or elders. Others again were formed by several neighbouring peoples whose chiefs were bound in loyalty to one another. Elsewhere, at the same time, there were people who found it better to get along without any chiefs."[38]

"Traditional groups such as clans ... or age-sets of people born at about the same time, had influence in these early states, as in later times, because they could underpin a system of law and order."[39]

♠ Religious levels ♣ ♥ levels.

At Jenne-jeno no evidence of "social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.[40]

♠ Military levels ♣ ♥ levels.

No data.

Professions

♠ Professional military officers ♣ inferred absent ♥ Full-time specialists

♠ Professional soldiers ♣ suspected unknown ♥

♠ Professional priesthood ♣ suspected unknown ♥ At Jenne-jeno no evidence of "social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.[41]

Bureaucracy characteristics

♠ Full-time bureaucrats ♣ suspected unknown ♥ At Jenne-jeno no evidence of "social ranking or authoritarian institutions such as a 'temple elite' has been found.[42]

♠ Examination system ♣ suspected unknown ♥

♠ Merit promotion ♣ suspected unknown ♥

♠ Specialized government buildings ♣ suspected unknown ♥

Law

♠ Formal legal code ♣ suspected unknown ♥

♠ Judges ♣ suspected unknown ♥

♠ Courts ♣ suspected unknown ♥

♠ Professional Lawyers ♣ suspected unknown ♥

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

♠ irrigation systems ♣ inferred absent ♥ No extensive agriculture at this time.
♠ drinking water supply systems ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ markets ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ food storage sites ♣ suspected unknown ♥

Transport infrastructure

♠ Roads ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Bridges ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Canals ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Ports ♣ suspected unknown ♥

Special purpose sites

♠ Mines or quarries ♣ inferred present ♥ unknown. iron mining[43] (date not specified, possibly from "earliest times") stone quarries, copper mines [44] (not sure of date).

Information

Writing System

♠ Mnemonic devices ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Nonwritten records ♣ present ♥ oral tradition sources. [45]
♠ Written records ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [46] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[47] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[48]
♠ Script ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [49] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[50] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[51]
♠ Non-phonetic writing ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [52] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[53] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[54]
♠ Phonetic alphabetic writing ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [55] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[56] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[57]

Kinds of Written Documents

♠ Lists, tables, and classifications ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [58] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[59] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[60]
♠ Calendar ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [61] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[62] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[63]
♠ Sacred Texts ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [64] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[65] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[66]
♠ Religious literature ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [67] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[68] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[69]
♠ Practical literature ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [70] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[71] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[72]
♠ History ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [73] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[74] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[75]
♠ Philosophy ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [76] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[77] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[78]
♠ Scientific literature ♣ absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [79] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[80] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[81]
♠ Fiction ♣ inferred absent ♥ "There are no written records of any description to throw light on the history of West Africa before 900 A.D." [82] "The West Africans who laid the foundations of their medieval empires during the centuries before 900 C.E. did not develop a written language they could use to record historical events."[83] Oldest example of writing in West Africa c1100 CE tomb inscription at Gao.[84]


Money

♠ Articles ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Tokens ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Precious metals ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Foreign coins ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Indigenous coins ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Paper currency ♣ suspected unknown ♥

Postal System

♠ Couriers ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Postal stations ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ General postal service ♣ suspected unknown ♥

Warfare variables

♠ RA ♣ Edward A L Turner ♥ These codes were developed at Seshat archaeological Workshops in Oxford, 2014 and 2017

Military Technologies

Military use of Metals

♠ Copper ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Bronze ♣ absent ♥
♠ Iron ♣ [absent; present] ♥ Iron Age from 600 BCE in West Africa (e.g. Benue valley in Nigeria and upper Niger River) "the development and spread of the basic technologies of metal production and the forging and smithing of metal tools, notably in iron."[85] "Iron-headed hoes, probably invented some time after iron-pointed spears."[86] "Iron also brought, from about 600 BC onwards, a new source of military power."[87]
♠ Steel ♣ absent ♥

Projectiles

♠ Javelins ♣ [absent; present] ♥ weapons: "clubs, bows and arrows, and spears" however they were most often used to acquire food [88]
♠ Atlatl ♣ inferred absent ♥
♠ Slings ♣ inferred absent ♥
♠ Self bow ♣ [absent; present] ♥ weapons: "clubs, bows and arrows, and spears" however they were most often used to acquire food [89]
♠ Composite bow ♣ absent ♥
♠ Crossbow ♣ absent ♥
♠ Tension siege engines ♣ absent ♥
♠ Sling siege engines ♣ absent ♥
♠ Gunpowder siege artillery ♣ absent ♥
♠ Handheld firearms ♣ absent ♥

Handheld weapons

♠ War clubs ♣ inferred present ♥ weapons: "clubs, bows and arrows, and spears" however they were most often used to acquire food [90]
♠ Battle axes ♣ absent ♥
♠ Daggers ♣ absent ♥
♠ Swords ♣ absent ♥
♠ Spears ♣ absent ♥
♠ Polearms ♣ absent ♥

Animals used in warfare

♠ Dogs ♣ absent ♥
♠ Donkeys ♣ absent ♥
♠ Horses ♣ absent ♥
♠ Camels ♣ absent ♥
♠ Elephants ♣ absent ♥

Armor

♠ Wood, bark, etc ♣ absent ♥
♠ Leather, cloth ♣ absent ♥
♠ Shields ♣ absent ♥
♠ Helmets ♣ absent ♥
♠ Breastplates ♣ absent ♥
♠ Limb protection ♣ absent ♥
♠ Chainmail ♣ absent ♥
♠ Scaled armor ♣ absent ♥
♠ Laminar armor ♣ absent ♥
♠ Plate armor ♣ absent ♥

Naval technology

♠ Small vessels (canoes, etc) ♣ suspected unknown ♥
♠ Merchant ships pressed into service ♣ absent ♥
♠ Specialized military vessels ♣ absent ♥

Fortifications

♠ Settlements in a defensive position ♣ inferred absent ♥ no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [91]
♠ Wooden palisades ♣ inferred absent ♥ no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [92]
♠ Earth ramparts ♣ inferred absent ♥ no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [93]
♠ Ditch ♣ inferred absent ♥ no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [94]
♠ Moat ♣ inferred absent ♥ no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [95]
♠ Stone walls (non-mortared) ♣ absent ♥
♠ Stone walls (mortared) ♣ absent ♥
♠ Fortified camps ♣ inferred absent ♥ no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [96]
♠ Complex fortifications ♣ absent ♥ no citadel[97]
♠ Long walls ♣ inferred absent ♥ km. no evidence of "external threats to Jenne-jeno" [98]
♠ Modern fortifications ♣ absent ♥

Phase II Variables (polity-based)

Institutional Variables

♠ RA ♣ Edward A L Turner ♥

Limits on Power of the Chief Executive

Power distributed

♠ Constraint on executive by government ♣ inferred absent ♥ Jenne-Jeno in its most developed phase after 900 CE probably had authority "shared amongst many corporate groups rather than being the monopoly of a charismatic individual (in Weber's sense) or of one bureaucratic lineage"[99] so before 900 CE any administrative organization would unlikely have been more developed than this. At this early time it appears there may have been virtually no executive (no kingship), but since formal government institutions are not reflected in the archaeology we can say that whatever did exist was not held back by government.
♠ Constraint on executive by non-government ♣ inferred present ♥ Jenne-Jeno in its most developed phase after 900 CE probably had authority "shared amongst many corporate groups rather than being the monopoly of a charismatic individual (in Weber's sense) or of one bureaucratic lineage"[100] so before 900 CE any administrative organization would unlikely have been more developed than this. At this early time it appears there may have been virtually no executive (no kingship), and since formal government institutions are not reflected in the archaeology we can say that whatever did exist was not held back by government. Therefore we can infer that the lack of executive was due to constraint by non-government.
♠ Impeachment ♣ absent ♥

Social Mobility

Status

Elite status

♠ elite status is hereditary ♣ suspected unknown ♥

Religion and Normative Ideology

♠ RA ♣ Agathe Dupreyon; Edward A L Turner ♥

Deification of Rulers

♠ Rulers are legitimated by gods ♣ suspected unknown ♥ NOTE: The following quotes, previously used to justify an "inferred present" code, does not clearly and explicitly refer to the exact time period in question, and is written by a non-specialist (EC). In West Africa "What emerges from the records of research, centrally, is that all these peoples awarded supreme power to an idea of God as controlling everything and everyone, but doing this indirectly through subordinate spiritual powers. From this governing concept they derived ... a ruling morality for everyday life: the power of God, they held, would always reward right behaviour and punish wrong behaviour."[101] "Like the Europeans of the Middle Ages (AD 600-1350), Africans lived in an 'age of faith'. They believed, in short, that political authority came not from men or women but from God and the spirits. Those who exercised power on earth could do so, in other words, only if they were accepted as speaking and acting with the good will of their departed ancestors, who, in turn, were their protectors and helpers in the world of the spirits. Rulers could only rule if they were spiritually appointed to do so; and their subjects obeyed them not simply from respect for the king's power and law, but also for reasons of religion."[102]

♠ Rulers are gods ♣ suspected unknown ♥ NOTE: The following quote, previously used to justify an "inferred present" code, does not clearly and explicitly refer to the exact time period in question, and is written by a non-specialist (EC). In West Africa "What emerges from the records of research, centrally, is that all these peoples awarded supreme power to an idea of God as controlling everything and everyone, but doing this indirectly through subordinate spiritual powers"[103]

Normative Ideological Aspects of Equity and Prosociality

♠ Ideological reinforcement of equality ♣ ♥

♠ Ideological thought equates rulers and commoners ♣ ♥
♠ Ideological thought equates elites and commoners ♣ ♥

♠ Ideology reinforces prosociality ♣ suspected unknown ♥ NOTE: The following quote, previously used to justify an "[absent; present]" code, does not clearly and explicitly refer to the exact time period in question, and is written by a non-specialist (EC). In West Africa "What emerges from the records of research, centrally, is that all these peoples awarded supreme power to an idea of God as controlling everything and everyone, but doing this indirectly through subordinate spiritual powers. From this governing concept they derived ... a ruling morality for everyday life: the power of God, they held, would always reward right behaviour and punish wrong behaviour."[104]

♠ production of public goods ♣ ♥

Moralizing Supernatural Powers

♠ Moral concern is primary ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement is certain ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing norms are broad ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement is targeted ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement of rulers ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing religion adopted by elites ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing religion adopted by commoners ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement in afterlife ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement in this life ♣ unknown ♥
♠ Moralizing enforcement is agentic ♣ unknown ♥

These data were reviewed by expert advisors and consultants. For a detailed description of these data, refer to the relevant Analytic Narratives, reference tables, and acknowledgements page. [105] [106] [107]

References

  1. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 1)
  2. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 9)
  3. ↑ (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ind_1/hd_ind_1.htm)
  4. ↑ (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500)
  5. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 15)
  6. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 15)
  7. ↑ (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500)
  8. ↑ (Reader 1998, 219)
  9. ↑ (Reader 1998, 225)
  10. ↑ (Reader 1998, 228)
  11. ↑ (Reader 1998, 226)
  12. ↑ (Reader 1998, 226)
  13. ↑ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  14. ↑ (Reader 1998, 225, 228) John Reader. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. London: Penguin Books.
  15. ↑ (McIntosh 2006, 174-75) Roderick McIntosh. 2006. Ancient Middle Niger. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  16. ↑ (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500)
  17. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 22) McIntosh, R J, McIntosh, S K. 1981. The inland Niger delta before the empire of Mali: evidence from Jenne-jeno. Journal of African History. Cambridge University Press. 22 (1): 1-22 Reader, J. 1998. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. Penguin Books. London.
  18. ↑ (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500)
  19. ↑ (McEverdy and Jones 1978, 238)
  20. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)
  21. ↑ (McEverdy and Jones 1978, 238)
  22. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)
  23. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 1)
  24. ↑ (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500)
  25. ↑ (Reader 1998, 230)
  26. ↑ (Reader 1998, 219)
  27. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 16)
  28. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 19)
  29. ↑ (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500)
  30. ↑ (Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh "Jenne-jeno, an ancient African city" http://anthropology.rice.edu/Content.aspx?id=500)
  31. ↑ (Reader 1998, 242)
  32. ↑ (Lapidus 2012, 590)
  33. ↑ (Reader 1998, 219)
  34. ↑ (Reader 1998, 225)
  35. ↑ (Reader 1998, 228)
  36. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 53)
  37. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 53)
  38. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 13) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  39. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 13) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  40. ↑ (Reader 1998, 230)
  41. ↑ (Reader 1998, 230)
  42. ↑ (Reader 1998, 230)
  43. ↑ (Reader 1998, 22)
  44. ↑ (Posnansky 1981, 723, 719)
  45. ↑ (McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 9)
  46. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
  47. ↑ (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
  48. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  49. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
  50. ↑ (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
  51. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  52. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
  53. ↑ (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
  54. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  55. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
  56. ↑ (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
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  58. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
  59. ↑ (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
  60. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  61. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
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  63. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  64. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
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  66. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  67. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
  68. ↑ (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
  69. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  70. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
  71. ↑ (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
  72. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  73. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
  74. ↑ (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
  75. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 44) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  76. ↑ (Bovill 1958, 51) Bovill, E W. 1958/1995. The Golden Trade of the Moors. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
  77. ↑ (Conrad 2010, 13) Conrad, D. C. 2010. Empires of Medieval West Africa. Revised Edition. Chelsea House Publishers. New York.
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  98. ↑ (Reader 1998, 230)
  99. ↑ (McIntosh, 31) McIntosh, Roderick J. Clustered Cities of the Middle Niger: Alternative Routes to Authority in Prehistory. in Anderson, David M. Rathbone, Richard. eds. 2000. Africa's Urban Past. James Currey Ltd. Oxford.
  100. ↑ (McIntosh, 31) McIntosh, Roderick J. Clustered Cities of the Middle Niger: Alternative Routes to Authority in Prehistory. in Anderson, David M. Rathbone, Richard. eds. 2000. Africa's Urban Past. James Currey Ltd. Oxford.
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  102. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 146) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
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  104. ↑ (Davidson 1998, 9) Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era. Routledge. London.
  105. ↑ http://seshatdatabank.info/databrowser/moralizing-supernatural-punishment-acknowledgements.html
  106. ↑ http://seshatdatabank.info/databrowser/moralizing-supernatural-punishment-narratives.html
  107. ↑ http://seshatdatabank.info/databrowser/moralizing-supernatural-punishment-nga_tables.html

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