EsHabsb

Phase I Variables (polity-based)

General variables

♠ RA ♣ Jill Levine ♥

♠ Original name ♣ Spanish Empire ♥

♠ Alternative names ♣ Spanish Empire; Habsburg Empire ♥

♠ Peak Date ♣ 1556-1598 ♥ Rule of Philip II

"To Spaniards, he has been the great ruler who guided the empire at the height of its power, the sword arm of Catholicism, defender of the faith and unity of Europe. He has also been called el prudente-"the wise" or "prudent."

"With the passing of Felipe II, the Spanish politico-military hegemony did not by any means come to an end but would last half a century more. The Spanish sense of providential mission, however, of being the sword arm of Catholic Christendom, of expanding a divinely guided empire, was indeed beginning to wane."

Temporal bounds

♠ Duration ♣ 1516-1700 CE ♥

♠ Degree of centralization ♣ confederated state ♥ “Although Castile, with its relatively small population and weak economy, did not have the resources to sustain great-power status on its own, when these were allied with the naval expertise and military manpower of Genoa and Naples, Flemish and Milanese weaponry and American silver, it could. In any event we must be careful not the judge the Monarchy from our own perspective of the compact nation state. The Spanish Habsburgs looked upon their network of domains as a family patrimony, and this concept of patrimony was accepted and understood by the elite.”

“It was attempts at increasing control beyond what was customary which led to unrest and rebellion, as happened with the Dutch in the sixteenth century and the Portuguese and Catalans in the seventeenth.”

“In New Spain and Peru, a series of extraordinary vicerorys brought administrative order out of the chaos of conquest and shaped a well-structured hierarchy of power that relied on the loyalty of soldiers, clerics, nobles, bureaucrats, and ordinary citizens…Some area in the Americans continued to resist Spanish control, but overall the empire functioned as an evolving fusion of Spanish and New World laws, peoples, institutions, and social structures.”

“From the time of Charles V, the military leaders of Italy, notably from the families of Gonzaga, Colonna and Medici, took service with the Spanish crown and helped to impose Spanish influence over the Italian states. At the same time, these military leaders strengthened the links of the Crown with local governing elites. The efficiency of the council of Italy lay in the fact that it was linked to a network of influence that spread throughout Italy. The community of interest, therefore, between local nobility and the distant crown, made it possible for a system of ‘empire’ to develop whereby the ruling circles benefited considerably from the Spanish presence, at the same time as they sought to make that presence less onerous. The crown had two powerful inducements it could use. It could offer posts in the bureaucracy to local nobility and thereby confirm their power; it could also distribute honours, titles, privileges and pensions, and in that way build up a network of eager clients.”

♠ Supra-polity relations ♣ ♥

Supra-cultural relations

♠ preceding (quasi)polity ♣ Crown of Castile and Aragon ♥

♠ relationship to preceding (quasi)polity ♣ continuity ♥ “Ferdinand and Isabella had been remarkably successful in carrying out the union of the two Crowns, but their lack of a male heir threatened to undo that work. As a result of the premature death of their only son, as well as other deaths in the family, their youngest daughter Juana stood to inherit the throne, but Juana, known as ‘La Loca’ was widely deemed incapable of ruling Spain. Because of Juana’s mental state and her marriage to a member of the Habsburg family (rulers of the Holy Roman Empire), it fell to Ferdinand and Isabella’s grandson (and Juana’s son) Charles to inherit the Spanish throne in 1516.”

♠ succeeding (quasi)polity ♣ House of Bourbon-Spain ♥

♠ Supracultural entity ♣ ♥

♠ scale of supra-cultural interaction ♣ ♥ km squared.

♠ Capital ♣ Madrid: 1561-1601 CE; Valladolid: 1601-1606 CE; Madrid: 1606-1700 CE ♥

Capital in Madrid was established in 1561.

♠ Language ♣ Castilian Spanish ♥ Native languages were spoken in the Habsburg empire as well including Quechua, Aymara, Mayan, Tagalog, and Nahautl. ♠ Language ♣ Castilian Spanish ♥

General Description

The Habsburg Dynasty came together as Ferdinand II united the Kingdoms of Aragon and Castile under his rule. When he died in 1516 CE, his grandson Charles I—son of the Aragon Queen Joanna and the Habsburg Philip, a Prince in the Holy Roman Empire—became the first crowned King of All Spain.

The Spanish Habsburg empire held territory in northern Europe, Italy, the Mediterranean, the Americas, Africa, India, and the Orient. “Yet Spain itself was rather unpromising material for greatness; the land was barren, the economy backward and the peninsula was politically fragmented.”

The Austrian Habsburg family inherited the Valois duchy of Burgundy (present day Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and part of Burgundy) and the crowns of Aragon (including Balearics, Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily) and Castile (including Navarre, and the Americas- Mexico and Peru). This territory was inherited by Charles Habsburg (Charles V, 1519-56). When Charles V abdicated in 1555-56 he spilt the territory between his brother and his son (Austrian and Spanish branches of the Habsburgs), thus expanding the Spanish Habsburg Empire even further by 1556.

Spain's territorial conquests brought in a wealth of gold and other resources from around the world. This boom led to a rapid growth in urbanization and marketization, as several Spanish cities became major hubs of production for manufactured goods (metal products and textiles especially).

By 1550 the Habsburg Empire had a population of 29 million across the world, including 9 million native people in the lands they had colonised.

Social Complexity variables

♠ RA ♣ Jill Levine ♥

Social Scale

♠ Polity territory ♣ 7,100,000: 1640 CE ♥ in squared kilometers

Estimates from Taagepera's graph in "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia."

• 1610 CE: 5,000,000 km2
• 1700 CE: 10,000,000 km2

• 1618-1697: Spanish conquest of Petén
• 1620-1622: Spanish conquest of the Palatinate
• 1626: Spanish expedition to Formosa
• 1633: Capture of Rheinfelden

♠ Polity Population ♣ 29,000,000: 1550 CE ♥ People.

"By the middle of the 16th century, The 7.5 million inhabitants of the Spanish kingdoms were the mainstay of the Habsburg Empire, which controlled more than 20 of Europe's 90 millions and 9m of the 12m natives in the New World."

Spain: 7,500,000: 1540 CE; 8,500,000: 1590-1600 CE; 7,000,000: 1700 CE

Iberian Union: 29,997,000: 1580-1640 CE (estimate from Wikipedia, needs checking and citation)

Spain and Portugal: 9,000,000-9,500,000: 1600 CE

♠ Population of the largest settlement ♣ 224,000: 1600 CE ♥ Inhabitants.

Naples: 224,000: 1600 CE

Hierarchical Complexity

♠ Settlement hierarchy ♣ 7 ♥ levels.

Spain:

1. Capital (Madrid): Permanent court established in the 1560s by Philip II.

1. Unofficial Capital: Before the 1560s: "The capital was where the monarch, the embodiment of the body politic, was to be found… often Toledo and other leading cities."

2. Kingdoms/Provinces: Castile, Aragon, Valencia, León, Andalusia, Granada, Catalonia, Murica, Navarre

3. Regional Capitals: Barcelona, Seville, Zaragoza, Pamplona

4. Cities: Toledo

5. Towns

6. Villages

7. Rural Settlements

Colonial Outposts

• Spanish East Indies: Philippines
• Viceroyalty of New Spain
• Viceroyalty of Peru
• North African Towns and Outposts
• Canary Islands

Viceroyalty of Peru

1. Audiencia Capitals. Examples: Bogota, Lima, Panama, Quito

2. Major Provincial Cities. Examples: Cusco, Cartagena, Arequipa, Guayaquil,

3. Missions

3. Presidios

3. Town

4. Village (inferred)

5. Rural Settlement (inferred)

Colonies Under the Iberian Union (1580-1640)

• Brazil (Porto Seguro)
• Azores
• Ceuta
• Madeira
• Cape Verde
• Angola
• Mozambique
• Ormuz (1515-1622)
• Muscat (1508-1650)
• Diu
• Bombay
• Goa
• Calcut
• Cochin
• Colombo
• Macau
• Malacca (1511-1641)
• Nagasaki (trading post until 1638)
• Ternate (1522-1622)
• East Timor
• Mina (until 1637)
• Mombasa
• Guinea

♠ Administrative levels ♣ 6 ♥ levels.

1. King

_Central Government_

2. Grand Chancellor

2. Chief Secretaries of Councils

3. Consejo de la Cámara de Castilla: small advisory cabinet to the King

3. Council of State (Consejo de Estado) : Archbishop of Toledo, Dukes of Alba and Bėjar, the royal confessor, and the Bishop of Jaén

3. Council of Castile (Consejo de Castilla)

3. Council of War (Consejo de Guerra)

3. Council of Finance (Consejo de Hacineda)

3. Council of Aragon (Consejo de Aragon)

3. Council of Portugal (Consejo de Portugal)

3. Council of Flanders (Consejo de Flandes)

3. Council of the Indes (Consejo de Indias)

4. House of Trade (Casa de Contratación)

4. High Chancellor

5. Lawyers

5. Fiscal

5. Secretaries

5. Lieutenant Chancellor

5. Accountants

6. Auditors

6. Copyrights

6. Reporters

6. Clerks

3. Cortes Generales

_Aragon, Navarre, and Castile_

1. King

2. Council of Aragon, Castile

2. Cortes in Catalan: Aragon, Navarre and Castile: “Each of the three component states had its own Cortes (Corts in Catalan), but these bodies met together as a Cortes General to deal with matters involving the entire kingdom.”

3. Deputy of the Generalitat (Cortes subcommittee): “Each body elected a subcommittee of its Cortes known as the Generalitat or Disputacio that contained a deputy and an oidor or an auditor from each of the three estates.”

4. Low Officials (inferred)

_Colonial Government_

1. Viceroy: chief executive of the colony, representative of the king Responsible to the Council of the Indes. "Although they governed from a royal court- situated permanently in Madrid after 1561- the Spanish Habsburgs relied on a decentralized power structure of viceroys, magistrates and royal officials who were stationed in a network of cities from Seville to Brussels and from Naples to Mexico City.” "Viceroys represented the crown in Zaragoza, Barcelona, Valencia, Palermo, and Naples, and after the incorporation of Hispanic Navarre (1512), in Pamplona as well. Overseas, powers of viceroy were delegated to Columbus in the first charter of 1492 and subsequently divided between two viceroys in Mexico and Peru. All commerce and navigation with Spanish America was controlled and administered by the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade), an agency of the Council of the Indies established in Seville and modeled, to some extent at least, on the medieval Catalan consulate, though its powers were more extensive and arbitrary."

1. Captain-general: "Captain-general: “the title of captain-general was primarily of military significance, and it was exercised alike by viceroys and governors; the official designation of the former being ‘my viceroy and captain-general’ and that of the latter being ‘my governor and captain general.” Not all governors were captains-general."

1. Governor: chief executive of the colony, representative of the king

1. Audiencia: tribunal of justice and administrative organs "“The audiencias of the colonies were alike dependent on the Council of the Indes; common institutions and departments of government existed in Spain for the control and regulations of the tribunals of the colonies. All were of equal judicial rank before the Council of the Indes.”

2. President

2. Regent

2. Magistrate

3. Criminal alcade

3. Fiscal

3. Oidores

_Provincial Government_

1. Military governors

1. Viceroy: "Viceroys represented the crown in Zaragoza, Barcelona, Valencia, Palermo, and Naples, and after the incorporation of Hispanic Navarre (1512), in Pamplona as well. Overseas, powers of viceroy were delegated to Columbus in the first charter of 1492 and subsequently divided between two viceroys in Mexico and Peru. All commerce and navigation with Spanish America was controlled and administered by the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade), an agency of the Council of the Indies established in Seville and modeled, to some extent at least, on the medieval Catalan consulate, though its powers were more extensive and arbitrary."

1. Dukes (inferred)

2. Provincial Estate: “Each province had its provincial estate, a representative body that included members from the towns and the from the land-holding nobility."

3. Local government

_Village_

1. Feudal Lord

2. Alcade Mayor

3. Regidor

3. Justice

4. Market Inspector

4. Constable

4. Clerk of the Council

♠ Religious levels ♣ 10 ♥ levels.

1. Pope

2. King

3. Crown-Cardinal

3. Archbishop: Archbishop of Toledo, Archbishop of Burgos, Archbishop of Seville ("fourth highest ranking in Castilian see succession"), Archbishop of Santiago.

3. Senior Royal Chaplain (traditionally held by the Archbishop of Santiago)

3. Grand Almoner

3. Grand Inquisitor (either a bishop or archbishop)

4. Bishop: In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.”

5. Royal Confessor: "Those religious who had previously served as royal preachers or confessors, as provincials and generals of their orders, as university professors and as theological advisors (calificadores) to the inquisition all became major contenders for promotion to the Castilian episcopal bench."

5. Royal Preachers: "Those religious who had previously served as royal preachers or confessors, as provincials and generals of their orders, as university professors and as theological advisors (calificadores) to the inquisition all became major contenders for promotion to the Castilian episcopal bench."

6. Lesser Royal Chaplains

7. Abbot . In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.”

8. Parish Priest: In the Americas: “The king personally nominated bishops and abbots to the pope. Members of a cathedral chapter were selected by either the king or the Council of Indies from a list of three names submitted by the bishop. The crown normally delegated the appointment of parish priests to the viceroy or governor.”

9. Deacon

9. Prior

10. Friar

10. Monk

10. Nun

10. Overseas Missionaries

• “Until 1559 the crown had little direct influence on the church in the Netherlands.”
• “The church in the Italian kingdoms continued to operate in the canonical way, which is to say that cathedral chapters nominated bishops to the pope.”

♠ Military levels ♣ 13 ♥ levels.

1. King

2. Chief Secretary of Council of War (inferred)

3. Council of War (Consejo de Guerra)

_Tercios_ (“Tercios were not, as a rule, employed within Spain, unless other forces could not be raised. Though well organized they were not numerous, and formed only a small proportion of the total forces available to the crown.”)

4. Captain-General

5. Maestre del Campo (Field Marshal): “Chosen by the Crown to command a new Tercio, or by the captain-general of a field army to fill a vacancy. He was to pass on the orders given by the captain-general, and to take command in the latter’s absence.”

6. Sergento Mayor (Sergeant-Major): “The second-in-command of the Tercio, he was responsible for passing on the field marshal’s orders to the captains.”

7. Capitán (Captain)

8. Alférez (Ensign, Lieutenant)

9. Sargento (Sergeant)

10. Cabo (Corporal)

11. Specialist: Arquebusier, Musketeer

12. Coselete: soldier with armor

13. Pica Seca: soldier without armor

Headquarters positions:

• Tambor Mayor (Drum Major): "The tambor mayor (drum major) reported directly to the sergeant-major, and was responsible for the training of all company drummers. He had to know the drumbeats of all nations, both allies and enemies. Together with the fife-players, the drummers marked the rhythm for marching."
• Furriel Mayor (quartermaster-major): "was responsible for the distribution of equipment and supplies, the organization of quarters, and the necessary bookkeeping. Below him, each company had a quartermaster to perform the same duties on a lesser scale."
• Barrachel (military provost)
• Auditor (legal officer): "one of his most important tasks was to validate the soldiers’ wills, which they customarily drew up before going into battle."
• Doctor
• Surgeon
• Barber
• Chaplain-major

Professions

♠ Professional military officers ♣ present ♥ 'During the sixteenth century, the regular army became a popular institution, and even younger sons of the gentry sometimes served brief periods in the ranks. The officers were almost exclusively Spanish subjects, until the latter part of the century, and these professionals provided the best leadership to be found in their time."

♠ Professional soldiers ♣ present ♥ Mercenaries.

♠ Professional priesthood ♣ present ♥ Parish priests, missionaries, friars.

Bureaucracy characteristics

♠ Full-time bureaucrats ♣ present ♥ Officials

♠ Examination system ♣ inferred absent ♥ Promotion in the aristocracy seemed to be through military service or inheritance.

♠ Merit promotion ♣ present ♥ Promotion in the aristocracy through military service. "The military leader was or became an aristocrat ipso facto, and the lower classes often had access to that rank through military achievement." "Letrados could start life as commoners, although upon receiving a university education and serving as bureaucrats, they were treated as hidalgos."

♠ Specialized government buildings ♣ present ♥ Town Halls, civic buildings.

Law

♠ Formal legal code ♣ present ♥ Roman and Spanish law.

♠ Judges ♣ present ♥ Judges present in Europe and the colonies. “In 1511, a tribunal of independent royal judges was constituted in the colony of Espanola to try cases appealed from the town magistrates and the governor.”

♠ Courts ♣ present ♥ Courts present in Europe and the colonies. “In 1511, a tribunal of independent royal judges was constituted in the colony of Espanola to try cases appealed from the town magistrates and the governor.”

♠ Professional Lawyers ♣ present ♥ Lawyers present in the Council of the Indes.

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

♠ irrigation systems ♣ present ♥ Sluice gates used for irrigation. "Vilanova de Castelló (Valencia) borrowed heavily over several generations between 1587 and 1645 to build and maintain an irrigation canal." However, there was not systemic nationwide irrigation: "The positive plans (among many fantasies) advocated by the arbitristas included the drastic cutting of government expenditure, the reform of the tax system, the encouragement of immigration into Castile, systematic and extensive irrigation, protection of industry, improvement of transport, and, finally, the sharing of the cost of empire among the constituent kingdoms of the monarchy. These were reasonable proposals, not unlike those put forward by mercantilist writers in the rest of Europe who treated economic activity as a means of increasing the power of the state. But time would show that the Castilian ruling classes would be neither capable nor willing to act on them."

♠ drinking water supply systems ♣ present ♥ “Seville relied partly on water brought fifteen miles from Alcara de Guadaira along an aqueduct built by the Muslims, and on from that Carmona, twenty mile away, running along another Roman aqueduct. A network of underground pipes, made of lead, carried the water to the fountains which stood in every little square and directly to a few of the chief households. Even small towns showed considerable ingenuity: Xativa, with about 8,000 inhabitants, had by the middle of the sixteenth century a new aqueduct to add to the old one, both bringing water from a league or so away. At least a quarter of the houses had their own piped supply.”

♠ markets ♣ present ♥ market-places were present "What gave order to Granada, thought its chronicler Bermúdez de Pedraza (1638), was ultimately the network of markets—the plazas or squares, ‘the stomach of this commonwealth, from which food is distributed throughout its members’."

♠ food storage sites ♣ present ♥ Seville set up a public granary in 1476. “During the sixteenth century, these municipal granaries (positos) began to spread throughout Castile and Valencia.”

Transport infrastructure

♠ Roads ♣ present ♥ Spain had a well-developed road system. Improvements of roads and mountain passes were made under Charles III

♠ Bridges ♣ present ♥ "Churches, town halls, bridges, and public works of all sorts were created in the image of Escorial well into the second quarter of the seventeenth century." "A majority of deputies to the Cortes of 1586-8 criticised the government for authorising too many schemes for bridges, without offering any funds of its own to help along the work."

♠ Canals ♣ present ♥ "Vilanova de Castelló (Valencia) borrowed heavily over several generations between 1587 and 1645 to build and maintain an irrigation canal."

♠ Ports ♣ present ♥ Spain had a number of major ports.

Special purpose sites

♠ Mines or quarries ♣ present ♥ Mines.

Information

Writing System

♠ Mnemonic devices ♣ ♥

♠ Nonwritten records ♣ present ♥

♠ Written records ♣ present ♥ “The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a golden age in theology and devotional writing as well as politics.”

♠ Script ♣ present ♥ “The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a golden age in theology and devotional writing as well as politics.”

♠ Non-phonetic writing ♣ absent ♥

♠ Phonetic alphabetic writing ♣ present ♥ “The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a golden age in theology and devotional writing as well as politics.”

Kinds of Written Documents

♠ Lists, tables, and classifications ♣ present ♥ Classifications: “In May 1576 Philip issued a detailed list of forty-nine questions which were to be answered by all officials in America. The questionnaire covered every conceivable topic from botany and geography to economy and religion. The answers, the famous ‘geographic relations’, began to come in from 1577 and trickled through for ten years more.”

♠ Calendar ♣ present ♥ Spain adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1582.

♠ Sacred Texts ♣ present ♥ The Bible (however, Castilian translations were destroyed during the Inquisition)

♠ Religious literature ♣ present ♥ “The sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries were a golden age in theology and devotional writing as well as politics.”

♠ Practical literature ♣ present ♥ example: Tomás de Mercado's Suma de tratos y contratos (On deals and contracts) (1571)

♠ History ♣ present ♥ Official cosmographer-historian appointed for America. Official historians. “In subsequent decades, Castilian historians reconciled themselves to the Habsburg dynasty so completely that they presented in their writings a Castile which had become, in the words of the emperor to the Cortes of Valladolid in 1523, ‘the head of all the rest’ (he meant the rest of the peninsular realms).”

♠ Philosophy ♣ present ♥ example: works by Baltasar Gracián and Francisco Suárez

♠ Scientific literature ♣ present ♥ example: Tomás de Mercado's Suma de tratos y contratos (On deals and contracts) (1571)- economic science

♠ Fiction ♣ present ♥ example: Don Quixote; Lazarillo de Tormes

Money

♠ Articles ♣ present ♥ Sugar, spice

♠ Tokens ♣ ♥ In the New World, or rural settlements?

♠ Precious metals ♣ present ♥ Silver from the Americas used in trade

♠ Foreign coins ♣ present ♥ ducats, florins

♠ Indigenous coins ♣ present ♥ Copper coins for petty trade. Silver and gold real coins.

♠ Paper currency ♣ absent ♥ Banknotes were introduced in 1780

Postal System

♠ Couriers ♣ present ♥ “A regular postal service was set up between Valencia and Madrid in the early sixteenth century, with riders guaranteeing to cover a minimum of ten leagues a day, and if they were paid extra, up to twenty leagues (112 km).”

♠ Postal stations ♣ inferred present ♥ “A regular postal service was set up between Valencia and Madrid in the early sixteenth century, with riders guaranteeing to cover a minimum of ten leagues a day, and if they were paid extra, up to twenty leagues (112 km).”

♠ General postal service ♣ present ♥ “A regular postal service was set up between Valencia and Madrid in the early sixteenth century, with riders guaranteeing to cover a minimum of ten leagues a day, and if they were paid extra, up to twenty leagues (112 km).”

Warfare variables

♠ RA ♣ Jill Levine ♥

Military Technologies

Military use of Metals

♠ Copper ♣ inferred present ♥ Widespread in Europe by this time.

♠ Bronze ♣ inferred present ♥ Widespread in Europe by this time.

♠ Iron ♣ present ♥ Examples: iron gunpowder flask, iron kettle hats

♠ Steel ♣ present ♥ Examples: steel flintlock, steel gauntlets

Projectiles

♠ Javelins ♣ inferred present ♥ Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Inferred use (even if rarely) against the Incas and Aztecs by Spanish soldiers. “Rocks provided an almost limitless supply of ammunition, and the wooden and stone arrows and javelins could also be manufactured in great numbers.” We don't know whether the Habsburgs use them themselves.

♠ Atlatl ♣ [present; absent] ♥ Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Used against the Spanish by Maya. We need to know whether the Habsburgs used them.

♠ Slings ♣ [present; absent] ♥ Used against the Spanish by the Maya. We need to know whether the Habsburgs used them.

♠ Self bow ♣ inferred present ♥ Inferred from presence of self bows from previous and subsequent polities in Cuzco. Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Used against the Spanish by Aztecs, Inca, and Maya, etc.

♠ Composite bow ♣ inferred absent ♥ Inferred from the absence of composite bows in previous and subsequent polities in Cuzco.

♠ Crossbow ♣ present ♥ “The crossbow, too, was only of limited use of the Spanish. It could fire at a superior velocity when compared to the native bows, but that extra power was designed to penetrated metal armour on the European battlefields.”

♠ Tension siege engines ♣ inferred absent ♥ Inferred from the absence of tension siege engines in previous and subsequent polities in Cuzco.

♠ Sling siege engines ♣ inferred absent ♥

♠ Gunpowder siege artillery ♣ present ♥ Cannons

♠ Handheld firearms ♣ present ♥ Arquebusiers , Muskets

Handheld weapons

♠ War clubs ♣ inferred present ♥ Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Inferred use (even if rarely) against the Incas and Aztecs by Spanish soldiers. Used against the Spanish by the Aztecs: macana wooden clubs.

♠ Battle axes ♣ inferred present ♥ Did Spanish soldiers ever use New World weapons? Inferred use (even if rarely) against the Incas and Aztecs by Spanish soldiers. Used against the Spanish by the Incas.

♠ Daggers ♣ present ♥ “Each fighter was expected to carry a dagger, both as a weapon of last resort and an everyday tool.”

♠ Swords ♣ present ♥ “The sword remained as a secondary weapon for hand-to-hand fighting.”

♠ Spears ♣ present ♥ Pikes, lances.

♠ Polearms ♣ present ♥ “The company officers carried different polearms. The halberd was the weapon of the sergeants.” “Captains (and sometimes sergeant-majors carried a gineta, with a teardrop-shaped blade above a fringed collar, and the partesana was the weapon of corporals. However these arms were carried as distinctions of status rather than fighting, and captains fought with the weapons of their companies.”

Animals used in warfare

♠ Dogs ♣ suspected unknown ♥

♠ Donkeys ♣ present ♥ Used for military transportation

♠ Horses ♣ present ♥ Armored cavalry

♠ Camels ♣ inferred absent ♥ Inferred from the absence of camels in previous polities in Cuzco.

♠ Elephants ♣ inferred absent ♥ Inferred from the absence of elephants in previous polities in Cuzco.

Armor

♠ Wood, bark, etc ♣ present ♥ Wooden shields

♠ Leather, cloth ♣ present ♥ “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.”

♠ Shields ♣ present ♥ "The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family."

♠ Helmets ♣ present ♥ "The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.” “Both the classes of pikemen and 16th century arquebusiers usually wore a metal helmet.”

♠ Breastplates ♣ present ♥ "The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." “The armour used by soldiers of the Tercio diminished over the years. The 16th century heavy coslete who fought exposed in the front several ranks of the squadron wore a full cuirass, a gorget tasset hanging down the thights, armour covering the upper and lower arms, and metal plated gauntlets.”

♠ Limb protection ♣ present ♥ "The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.” “The armour used by soldiers of the Tercio diminished over the years. The 16th century heavy coslete who fought exposed in the front several ranks of the squadron wore a full cuirass, a gorget tasset hanging down the thights, armour covering the upper and lower arms, and metal plated gauntlets.”

♠ Chainmail ♣ inferred absent ♥ "The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.”

♠ Scaled armor ♣ present ♥ Helmets with “an additional plate or lamellar neck and cheek protection.”

♠ Laminar armor ♣ inferred absent ♥ "The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.”

♠ Plate armor ♣ present ♥ "The widespread use of firearms and waning popularity of jousting tournaments caused a steep decline in the production of armor in the seventeenth century. Because the symbolic value of armor outlived its effectiveness in battle, sumptuous examples were still made as diplomatic gifts and appeared in portraits of members of the royal family." “Captains and wealthier nobles might have three-quarter armour, consisting of a closed helmet, curiass (breastplate), arm defences, and leg defences that ended at the knees. Those of lesser means made do with a helmet and some form of leather or cotton armour. In time, however, the Spanish began to favour the native-style quilted cotton armour, which was far more comfortable to wear in the humid climate of the New World.”

Naval technology

♠ Small vessels (canoes, etc) ♣ present ♥ Canoes in Peru (transportation or military?)

♠ Merchant ships pressed into service ♣ suspected unknown ♥

♠ Specialized military vessels ♣ present ♥ The Spanish Armada. "The Armada of 1588 was a much more complex enterprise than the expedition to Lepanto seventeen years earlier had been. It was the most massive high seas fleet that Europe had ever seen, but it was also part of an amphibious operation that planned to ferry much of the Spanish forces in the Low Countries to a land invasion of England. There were some one hundred thirty ships in the Armada." “In the 1550s, two-thirds of the Mediterranean galleys employed by the crown were contracted from private owners, the majority Italians”

Fortifications

♠ Settlements in a defensive position ♣ present ♥ "The great economic historian Carande, in the title of a famous essay, called Seville ‘a fortress and a market’, and it is a useful reminder of the twin functions of the Spanish town." Fortress towns.

♠ Wooden palisades ♣ present ♥ Wooden palisades used in Callao, Peru

♠ Earth ramparts ♣ present ♥ "Trenches and earthworks" in Callao, Peru

♠ Ditch ♣ present ♥ "Trenches and earthworks" at Callao

♠ Moat ♣ present ♥ Moat used as a defence in Peru.

♠ Stone walls (non-mortared) ♣ inferred present ♥

♠ Stone walls (mortared) ♣ present ♥ Stone walls built as defences in Peru

♠ Fortified camps ♣ present ♥ Garrisons "Since the great wars of the fourteenth century, when Barcelona and Valencia built the magnificent fortifications which survived down to the nineteenth century, the walls of Spanish towns had generally been allowed to fall into decline. Travellers from the war-torn Europe of the 1500s and 1600s were surprised at how Spain managed to get along with medieval ramparts, and how little was spent on the bastions and counter-scarps of contemporary defence. But the walls were still used as a control on movement in and out, and particularly for the collection of the sisas or excise tax, which was the basis of municipal budgets." Fortress towns.

♠ Complex fortifications ♣ inferred absent ♥ "Since the great wars of the fourteenth century, when Barcelona and Valencia built the magnificent fortifications which survived down to the nineteenth century, the walls of Spanish towns had generally been allowed to fall into decline. Travellers from the war-torn Europe of the 1500s and 1600s were surprised at how Spain managed to get along with medieval ramparts, and how little was spent on the bastions and counter-scarps of contemporary defence. But the walls were still used as a control on movement in and out, and particularly for the collection of the sisas or excise tax, which was the basis of municipal budgets." Fortress towns.

♠ Long walls ♣ 0 ♥ km. "Since the great wars of the fourteenth century, when Barcelona and Valencia built the magnificent fortifications which survived down to the nineteenth century, the walls of Spanish towns had generally been allowed to fall into decline. Travellers from the war-torn Europe of the 1500s and 1600s were surprised at how Spain managed to get along with medieval ramparts, and how little was spent on the bastions and counter-scarps of contemporary defence. But the walls were still used as a control on movement in and out, and particularly for the collection of the sisas or excise tax, which was the basis of municipal budgets."

♠ Modern fortifications ♣ present ♥ Royal Fortress of the Concepcion built in 1663 on the Portuguese-Spanish border area. It's an example of a starfort.

Phase II Variables (polity-based)

Institutional Variables

♠ RA ♣ ♥

Limits on Power of the Chief Executive

Power distributed

♠ Constraint on executive by government ♣ ♥

♠ Constraint on executive by non-government ♣ ♥

♠ Impeachment ♣ ♥

Social Mobility

Status

Elite status

♠ elite status is hereditary ♣ present ♥ Dynastic rule.

Religion and Normative Ideology

♠ RA ♣ Enrico Cioni ♥

Deification of Rulers

♠ Rulers are legitimated by gods ♣ present ♥

♠ Rulers are gods ♣ absent ♥ Christianity is a monotheistic religion, and therefore does not admit of more than one God.

Normative Ideological Aspects of Equity and Prosociality

♠ Ideological reinforcement of equality ♣ present ♥ Jesus' message "envisages a universal society bound together by divine love in which the limited human ties of affection based on kinship, cultural identity, and self-interest give way to the unlimited love of God. It calls for an egalitarian kingdom of love without limits. Jesus likens it to a family in which all are brothers and sisters of one another and children of the one Father (‘Abba’, an informal word for father, is Jesus’ preferred name for God)." However, it is worth noting that, for example, social inequality and inequality between the sexes were often justified theologically .

♠ Ideological thought equates rulers and commoners ♣ absent ♥ "According to a long-standing, and not infrequently contested ideal, European society was composed of a series of hierarchically arranged social groups (estates, orders, and corps), each with a prescribed function and corresponding degree of honour and privileges. In its simplest form, society consisted of three basic groups: the First Estate, the clergy, who prayed; the Second Estate, the nobility, who fought; and the Third Estate, the common people, who worked. This hierarchy of superiority and inferiority was, according to some theorists of the period, inscribed in the order of the universe, so that the terrestrial human hierarchy participated in a greater, divinely sanctioned celestial hierarchy." "Anybody working on early modern churches will be aware of the great significance attached to the correct seating order by early modern men and women ostensibly all 'sharing space' in church. Pews and their arrangement reflected the prevailing social rank of a person and his or her family within this community and therefore were not to be trifled with."

♠ Ideological thought equates elites and commoners ♣ absent ♥ "According to a long-standing, and not infrequently contested ideal, European society was composed of a series of hierarchically arranged social groups (estates, orders, and corps), each with a prescribed function and corresponding degree of honour and privileges. In its simplest form, society consisted of three basic groups: the First Estate, the clergy, who prayed; the Second Estate, the nobility, who fought; and the Third Estate, the common people, who worked. This hierarchy of superiority and inferiority was, according to some theorists of the period, inscribed in the order of the universe, so that the terrestrial human hierarchy participated in a greater, divinely sanctioned celestial hierarchy." "Anybody working on early modern churches will be aware of the great significance attached to the correct seating order by early modern men and women ostensibly all 'sharing space' in church. Pews and their arrangement reflected the prevailing social rank of a person and his or her family within this community and therefore were not to be trifled with."

♠ Ideology reinforces prosociality ♣ present ♥ "Christian values of brotherly love demanded the care of the unfortunate and impoverished."

♠ production of public goods ♣ suspected unknown ♥

Moralizing Supernatural Powers

♠ Moral concern is primary ♣ present ♥

♠ Moralizing enforcement is certain ♣ present ♥

♠ Moralizing norms are broad ♣ present ♥

♠ Moralizing enforcement is targeted ♣ present ♥

♠ Moralizing enforcement of rulers ♣ present ♥

♠ Moralizing religion adopted by elites ♣ present ♥

♠ Moralizing religion adopted by commoners ♣ present ♥

♠ Moralizing enforcement in afterlife ♣ present ♥

♠ Moralizing enforcement in this life ♣ present ♥

♠ Moralizing enforcement is agentic ♣ present ♥

These data were reviewed by expert advisors and consultants. For a detailed description of these data, refer to the relevant Analytic Narratives, reference tables, and acknowledgements page.

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